[790] He never attended torture sessions or executions,[791] although Service thought Stalin "derived deep satisfaction" from degrading and humiliating people and enjoyed keeping even close associates in a state of "unrelieved fear". [58] Stalin organised another mass demonstration on the day of their funeral,[59] before being arrested in April 1902. [927] Polling by the Levada Center suggest Stalin's popularity has grown since 2015, with 46% of Russians expressing a favourable view of him in 2017 and 51% in 2019. [801] He was a voracious reader, with a library of over 20,000 books. In 1952, Stalin's last book, Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR, was published. [589] In April 1949, the Western powers established the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), an international military alliance of capitalist countries. [534] In 1944 the German armies were pushed out of the Baltic states (with the exception of the Ostland), which were then re-annexed into the Soviet Union. [404] Stalin nevertheless recognised the threat posed by fascism and sought to establish better links with the liberal democracies of Western Europe;[405] in May 1935, the Soviets signed a treaty of mutual assistance with France and Czechoslovakia. [861] Biographers like Service and Volkogonov have considered him an outstanding and exceptional politician;[862] Montefiore labelled Stalin as "that rare combination: both 'intellectual' and killer", a man who was "the ultimate politician" and "the most elusive and fascinating of the twentieth-century titans". [503] The government increasingly promoted Pan-Slavist sentiment,[504] while encouraging increased criticism of cosmopolitanism, particularly the idea of "rootless cosmopolitanism", an approach with particular repercussions for Soviet Jews. [535] As the Red Army reconquered the Caucasus and Crimea, various ethnic groups living in the region—the Kalmyks, Chechens, Ingushi, Karachai, Balkars, and Crimean Tatars—were accused of having collaborated with the Germans. [611] In Czechoslovakia, where the communists did have a level of popular support, they were elected the largest party in 1946. [881], McDermott nevertheless cautioned against "over-simplistic stereotypes"—promoted in the fiction of writers like Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Vasily Grossman, and Anatoly Rybakov—that portrayed Stalin as an omnipotent and omnipresent tyrant who controlled every aspect of Soviet life through repression and totalitarianism. Directed by Agnieszka Holland. [707] Following Lenin's death, Stalin contributed to the theoretical debates within the Communist Party, namely by developing the idea of "Socialism in One Country". [682] According to scholar Robert Service, Stalin's "few innovations in ideology were crude, dubious developments of Marxism". [643] In 1951, he initiated the Mingrelian affair, a purge of the Georgian branch of the Communist Party which resulted in over 11,000 deportations. Stalin had called for the Chinese Communists to ally themselves with Kuomintang (KMT) nationalists, viewing a Communist-Kuomintang alliance as the best bulwark against Japanese imperial expansionism. [840] When she died, Stalin said "This creature softened my heart of stone. [477], In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union, initiating the war on the Eastern Front. The Russian Empire became a de facto republic, headed by a Provisional Government dominated by liberals. [587], In the aftermath of the Second World War, the British Empire declined, leaving the U.S. and USSR as the dominant world powers. [628], The Soviet Union was one of the first nations to extend diplomatic recognition to the newly created state of Israel in 1948. Despite initial setbacks, the Soviet Red Army repelled the German incursion and captured Berlin in 1945, ending World War II in Europe. [864], Stalin strengthened and stabilised the Soviet Union;[865] Service suggested that without him the country might have collapsed long before 1991. [333], Armed peasant uprisings against dekulakisation and collectivisation broke out in Ukraine, northern Caucasus, southern Russia, and central Asia, reaching their apex in March 1930; these were suppressed by the Red Army. [151] She gave birth to another of his children, Alexander, circa April 1917. [54], That month, Stalin travelled to the port city of Batumi. [686] Leading this vanguard, he believed that the Soviet peoples needed a strong, central figure—akin to a Tsar—whom they could rally around. [259] Lenin and Stalin argued on the issue of foreign trade; Lenin believed that the Soviet state should have a monopoly on foreign trade, but Stalin supported Grigori Sokolnikov's view that doing so was impractical at that stage. [611] The 1947 Hungarian elections were also rigged, with the Hungarian Working People's Party taking control. [65] He made two escape attempts: On the first, he made it to Balagansk before returning due to frostbite. [288] Stalin built up a retinue of his supporters in the Central Committee,[289] while the Left Opposition were gradually removed from their positions of influence. [78] Stalin formed a Bolshevik Battle Squad which he used to try to keep Baku's warring ethnic factions apart; he also used the unrest as a cover for stealing printing equipment. [518] Soviet military industrial output also had increased substantially from late 1941 to early 1943 after Stalin had moved factories well to the east of the front, safe from German invasion and aerial assault. [87] Although Stalin held Lenin in deep respect, he was vocal in his disagreement with Lenin's view that the Bolsheviks should field candidates for the forthcoming election to the State Duma; Stalin saw the parliamentary process as a waste of time. [596] [245] The Georgian Communist Party opposed the idea, resulting in the Georgian affair. [109] There he led the imprisoned Bolsheviks, organised discussion groups, and ordered the killing of suspected informants. [341] The USSR underwent a massive economic transformation. [816], Stalin publicly condemned anti-Semitism,[817] although was repeatedly accused of it. [352] Many religious buildings were demolished, most notably Moscow's Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, destroyed in 1931 to make way for the (never completed) Palace of the Soviets. [617] Monarchy was abolished in Bulgaria and Romania. Staline est né à Gori, en Géorgie, le 18 décembre 1878. [30] He continued writing poetry; five of his poems, on themes such as nature, land and patriotism, were published under the pseudonym of "Soselo" in Ilia Chavchavadze's newspaper Iveria ('Georgia'). [350] The first major show trial in the USSR was the Shakhty Trial of 1928, in which several middle-class "industrial specialists" were convicted of sabotage. [46] He attracted a group of supporters through his classes in socialist theory[47] and co-organised a secret workers' mass meeting for May Day 1900,[48] at which he successfully encouraged many of the men to take strike action. [731] He rarely spoke before large audiences, and preferred to express himself in written form. [379] In May 1932, he introduced a system of kolkhoz markets where peasants could trade their surplus produce. [765] He was a hard worker,[766] and displayed a keen desire to learn;[767] when in power, he scrutinised many details of Soviet life, from film scripts to architectural plans and military hardware. [380] At the same time, penal sanctions became more severe; at Stalin's instigation, in August 1932 a decree was introduced wherein the theft of even a handful of grain could be a capital offense. [659] The body was embalmed,[660] and then placed on display in Moscow's House of Unions for three days. [190], Because of the ongoing First World War, in which Russia was fighting the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary, Lenin's government relocated from Petrograd to Moscow in March 1918. [916] In October 1961, Stalin's body was removed from the mausoleum and buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis next to the Kremlin walls, the location marked only by a simple bust. [703] He read about, and admired, two Tsars in particular: Ivan the Terrible and Peter the Great. [335] Although he and Stalin had been close for many years,[336] Bukharin expressed concerns about these policies; he regarded them as a return to Lenin's old "war communism" policy and believed that it would fail. [362] He also expressed patronage for scientists whose research fitted within his preconceived interpretation of Marxism; he for instance endorsed the research of agrobiologist Trofim Lysenko despite the fact that it was rejected by the majority of Lysenko's scientific peers as pseudo-scientific. [709] Although retaining the Marxist belief that the state would wither away as socialism transformed into pure communism, he believed that the Soviet state would remain until the final defeat of international capitalism. Instead, the KMT repressed the Communists and a civil war broke out between the two sides. [366], Throughout the 1920s and beyond, Stalin placed a high priority on foreign policy. During a brief period back in Tiflis, Stalin and the Outfit planned the ambush of a mail coach, during which most of the group—although not Stalin—were apprehended by the authorities. [270] It was incorporated into a growing personality cult devoted to Lenin, with Petrograd being renamed "Leningrad" that year. [717] The socio-economic nature of Stalin's Soviet Union has also been much debated, varyingly being labelled a form of state socialism, state capitalism, bureaucratic collectivism, or a totally unique mode of production. [872] Various biographers have described him as a dictator,[873] an autocrat,[874] or accused him of practicing Caesarism. [242], Stalin's native Caucasus posed a particular problem because of its highly multi-ethnic mix. [437] Party functionaries readily carried out their commands and sought to ingratiate themselves with Stalin to avoid becoming the victim of the purge. [467] Embarrassed by their inability to defeat the Finns, the Soviets signed an interim peace treaty, in which they received territorial concessions from Finland. Stalin and fellow senior Bolshevik Leon Trotsky both endorsed Lenin's plan of action, but it was initially opposed by Kamenev and other party members. [235] At the 9th Bolshevik Conference in late September, Trotsky accused Stalin of "strategic mistakes" in his handling of the war. [749] As leader, he rarely left Moscow unless to go to one of his dachas;[750] he disliked travel,[751] and refused to travel by plane. [898] The historian and archival researcher Stephen G. Wheatcroft and Michael Ellman attribute roughly 3 million deaths to the Stalinist regime, including executions and deaths from criminal negligence. [160] In a celebratory mood, Stalin travelled by train to Petrograd in March. QCM L'URSS de Staline : Explications sur le pays de l'URSS et sur ses dirigeants jusqu'en 1953. [652] He was moved onto a couch and remained there for three days. [691] Stalin respected Lenin, but not uncritically,[696] and spoke out when he believed that Lenin was wrong. [312] Stalin's government feared attack from Japan, France, the United Kingdom, Poland, and Romania. [419] By the latter part of 1937, the purges had moved beyond the party and were affecting the wider population. A communist ideologically committed to the Leninist interpretation of Marxism, Stalin formalised these ideas as Marxism–Leninism, while his own policies are known as Stalinism. [757] In 1934, his new Kuntsevo Dacha was built; 9 km from the Kremlin, it became his primary residence. More than for any other historical figure, even Gandhi or Churchill, a biography of Stalin... eventually comes to approximate a history of the world. 16:38. [758] In 1935 he began using a new dacha provided for him by Lakoba at Novy Afon;[759] in 1936, he had the Kholodnaya Rechka dacha built on the Abkhazian coast, designed by Miron Merzhanov. [548] Stalin was pressed by his allies to enter the war and wanted to cement the Soviet Union's strategic position in Asia. [218] He was reprimanded by Lenin at the 8th Party Congress for employing tactics which resulted in far too many deaths of Red Army soldiers. [327] Although officially voluntary, many peasants joined the collectives out of fear they would face the fate of the kulaks; others joined amid intimidation and violence from party loyalists. [629] He was further angered by Israel's growing alliance with the U.S.[630] After Stalin fell out with Israel, he launched an anti-Jewish campaign within the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc. [217] When the Red Third Regiment defected, he ordered the public execution of captured defectors. [285] While Lenin had been ill Stalin had forged an anti-Trotsky alliance with Kamenev and Zinoviev. Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (born Ioseb Besarionis dzе Jughashvili, 18 December [O.S. [837] Stalin married twice and had several offspring. [382], The Soviet Union experienced a major famine which peaked in the winter of 1932–33;[383] between five and seven million people died. [277] Stalin had much contact with young party functionaries,[278] and the desire for promotion led many provincial figures to seek to impress Stalin and gain his favour. This led to severe disruptions of food production that contributed to the famine of 1932–33. Il établit progressivement, après la mort de Lénine, un régime totalitaire qui se renforce jusquâà sa mort en 1953. [892] Socialist writers like Volkogonov have acknowledged that Stalin's actions damaged "the enormous appeal of socialism generated by the October Revolution". [593] Stalin also initiated a new military build-up; the Soviet army was expanded from 2.9 million soldiers, as it stood in 1949, to 5.8 million by 1953. [317] At his command, grain procurement squads surfaced across Western Siberia and the Urals, with violence breaking out between these squads and the peasantry. Written in response to public revelations of the 1939 Soviet alliance with Germany, it focused on blaming Western powers for the war. We have fallen behind the advanced countries by fifty to a hundred years. [423] The second Moscow Show Trial took place in January 1937,[424] and the third in March 1938, in which Bukharin and Rykov were accused of involvement in the alleged Trotskyite-Zinovievite terrorist plot and sentenced to death. [439], Stalin initiated all key decisions during the Terror, personally directing many of its operations and taking an interest in their implementation. [517] By the end of 1943, the Soviets occupied half of the territory taken by the Germans from 1941 to 1942. [382] In 1936, Nikolai Yezhov became head of the NKVD. [556], After the war, Stalin was—according to Service—at the "apex of his career". This interpretation has been rejected by more recent historical studies. [89] At the conference, the RSDLP—then led by its Menshevik majority—agreed that it would not raise funds using armed robbery. [99], In Baku, Stalin secured Bolshevik domination of the local RSDLP branch[100] and edited two Bolshevik newspapers, Bakinsky Proletary and Gudok ("Whistle"). [890] After the dissolution of the Union in 1991, the rest of the archives were opened to historians, resulting in much new information about Stalin coming to light,[891] and producing a flood of new research. [70] Stalin detested many of the Mensheviks in Georgia and aligned himself with the Bolsheviks. [466] International opinion backed Finland, with the Soviets being expelled from the League of Nations. [825] According to Beria, Stalin had affairs with several Jewish women. Joseph Vissarionovitch Djougachvili naît à Gori en Georgie dans une famille d'anciens serfs, pauvres et sans éducation. [104] In Baku he had reassembled his gang, the Outfit,[105] which continued to attack Black Hundreds and raised finances by running protection rackets, counterfeiting currency, and carrying out robberies. [82] They launched attacks on the government's Cossack troops and pro-Tsarist Black Hundreds,[83] co-ordinating some of their operations with the Menshevik militia. [666] The Central Committee met on the day of his death, with Malenkov, Beria, and Khrushchev emerging as the party's key figures. [169] In Lenin's absence, Stalin continued editing Pravda and served as acting leader of the Bolsheviks, overseeing the party's Sixth Congress, which was held covertly. Les enfants sont embrigadées dans des organisations de jeunesse, « pionniers » [777] He lacked compassion,[783] something Volkogonov suggested might have been accentuated by his many years in prison and exile,[784] although he was capable of acts of kindness to strangers, even amid the Great Terror. [39] He also read Capital, the 1867 book by German sociological theorist Karl Marx. 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[328] [413], Stalin often gave conflicting signals regarding state repression. [202] The treaty gave vast areas of land and resources to the Central Powers and angered many in Russia; the Left Socialist Revolutionaries withdrew from the coalition government over the issue. [234] Stalin felt humiliated and under-appreciated; on 17 August, he demanded demission from the military, which was granted on 1 September. [846] Nadezdha suspected that this was the case,[847] and committed suicide in 1932. [691] According to Sandle, Stalin was "committed to the creation of a society that was industrialised, collectivised, centrally planned and technologically advanced. [338], Officially, the Soviet Union had replaced the "irrationality" and "wastefulness" of a market economy with a planned economy organised along a long-term, precise, and scientific framework; in reality, Soviet economics were based on ad hoc commandments issued from the centre, often to make short-term targets. [102] In November 1907, his wife died of typhus,[103] and he left his son with her family in Tiflis. [158] Stalin was required to serve four more months on his exile, and he successfully requested that he serve it in nearby Achinsk. [771] Several historians have seen it appropriate to follow Lazar Kaganovich's description of there being "several Stalins" as a means of understanding his multi-faceted personality.
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